An alternative view
Geological time divisionsWe are born into the world as if from nowhere, through a birth we cannot remember. Growing into adulthood, we inquire into how the universe itself arose, but find that its origin is also far from clear. Existence is a mystery.
Did the Earth originate naturally? Does nature have its own creative power, even to the extent of producing things incomparably more complex than human intelligence and technology can engineer? Can human life be reduced to the properties of atoms, contrary to our sense of being distinct from the world?
In recent decades it has become difficult to ask such questions in an open-ended way. Scientific institutions, educational establishments and broadcasting media all permit but one answer, one view of reality: the world created itself.
But doubt persists in sidling in. We live from day to day knowing that life is something different from molecules. It involves consciousness – something that plants, which also reproduce sexually via DNA, do not have. Our experience of ourselves as conscious beings tells us that there is more to reality than can be accounted for by molecules, however complex their organisation.
Given that life is inherently and irreducibly wonderful, what we have done in rejecting theistic explanations is simply to transfer the power of miracle from God to Nature, using scientific language to dress up a belief in natural magic. This is not to say that creation in 6 days provides a straightforward answer. While the glory of the stars, the majesty of the continents and oceans, the secret lives of the animals that share our planet all appear to deny a natural explanation of their existence, they do not speak directly of creation, because nothing is as it was. Everything lies at the end of a long history. Creation cannot be read from the universe’s immediate appearance.
And there is another difficulty. We cannot go back to the beginning because a cataclysm near the beginning destroyed the original land. We have become aware of this only in the last 40 years, as a result of discovering that Earth’s oldest crust is missing. The impact craters which defaced the Moon just prior to the beginning of the geological record destroyed Earth’s earliest record. Asteroids, combined with torrential flooding, rendered the planet formless and barren.
Evolution
Cover of the 26 June 2008 edition of Nature, which focused on the evidence for cataclysm in the early solar systemIt is this primeval cataclysm that is the key to understanding the fossil record. After the bombardment the planet was in geological flux. Species had to colonise new seas and lands, and to diversify as they met the challenges. Bacteria were the first organisms to appear not because they were the simplest but because they were the most prolific and lay at the base of food chains. Other organisms gained a foothold as land surfaces stabilised: mosses, lichens, low-lying wetland plants and forest-forming trees in rapid ecological succession, joined by an equally diverse range of animals – millipedes, insects, mites, spiders, scorpions, reptiles.
‘Evolution’ has two meanings. The first is the well established fact that all species originate from other species; the second, the presumption that all species, from bacteria to human beings, are related to one another and originated aeons ago from self-organising chemicals. More influenced by Darwin than we would like to think, we tend to confound the two. When new species originate, we think we are seeing evidence for the theory that life evolved from a ‘prebiotic soup’. In reality there is no such evidence, and documented examples of evolutionary change cannot be explained in Darwinian terms.
When it was made, the discovery that organisms change over time was perceived as a threat to the idea of creation. We can now see that it was the reverse. Despite attempts to associate ‘evolution’ with a blind, random, undirected process, the truth is that the most spectacular examples of evolution are also the most obviously directed – directed not by a intervening power continually giving a helping hand, but by a genetic code that was programmed to respond to change. Consider what is involved, for example, in:
•the evolution of anemones, jellyfish and corals from a common ancestor
•the evolution of snakes from lizards
•the adaptations which gave woodpeckers and flamingos their identities
•the transformation of feathered birds into penguins
•the transformation of land-dwelling quadrupeds into sea-going whales and dolphins
Their evolution is as miraculous as the creation of their original progenitors, with which their whole history began. Nonetheless, theists deny that such transformations could have happened because they seem too miraculous, while atheists invoke ‘natural selection’ all along the way in order to deny the miraculous. An argument from incredulity on the part of believers, an argument from credulity on the part of unbelievers!
The more spectacular the transformation or prodigal the diversity, the more it becomes clear that such phenomena were not the work of chance but pre-programmed – just as the single-generation metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly, or of an egg into an ostrich, is evidently pre-programmed. Evolution of this kind in no way implies the denial of an original creation. Survivors from the cataclysm were endowed with enormous potential to diversify because there were so few of them. They were endowed with an enormous potential to adapt because they had to colonise a world that, beginning from total devastation, had to pass through multiple stages of ecological renewal. If nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution, it is equally clear that nothing makes sense except in the light of creation.
Food webs and ecosystems appear suddenly from the Cambrian onwards
How this website is organised
Earth history took place over a succession of ages, and inevitably the names of these ages will be unfamiliar to most readers. Be patient, therefore, while you become used to them. The organising principle of the site is primarily chronological.
•First, a record of Earth’s colonisation walks the visitor through the early part of the fossil record, illustrating how the step-by-step appearance of plants and animals reflects a process of ecological recovery (Archaean to Devonian).
•The antediluvian world steps still further back in time to look at what the original world was like (before the Archaean).
•The old world destroyed argues that evidence generally taken to go back to the solar system’s birth is actually evidence of its destruction.
•Transitional fossils discusses, in chronological order, the ‘top ten’ examples of evolution, from fishes to man (Devonian to Quaternary).
In addition:
•The age of the Earth discusses how the planet is dated and why timescales of millions of years should be treated with scepticism.
•A series of diagrams and timecharts provides visual aids.
•Key concepts summarises the new approach, followed by pages that treat some concepts in more detail.
•In-depth discussions engage the general reader at a more technical level, with topics such as the origin of the solar system and the newly discovered ‘transitional’ fossil Tiktaalik.
•Finally, Genesis and other traditions considers the testimony of traditions that predate the invention of writing, on the basis that they represent a lost memory of how the Earth came into existence. They too tell us that the original world was destroyed.
This is a quality site, which invites you to be open to new ways of seeing. The less you skim, the more you will get out of it. New material continues to be added.
Saturday, 23 February 2013
History of Quetta
History
The area was originally inhabited by Kasi, of Pashtun tribe, The first detailed account of Quetta is from the 11th century when it was captured by Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his invasions of the Indian sub-continent. In 1543, the Mughal emperor Humayun rested in Quetta on his retreat to Persia, leaving his one-year-old son Akbar in the city until his return two years later. The Khan of Kalat ruled Quetta until 1556, when the Persians conquered the city, only to have it retaken by Akbar in 1595. In 1828 the first westerner to visit Quetta described it as a mud-walled fort surrounded by three hundred mud houses. Although the city was occupied briefly in 1839 by the British during the First Afghan War, it was not until 1876 that Quetta became part of the British Empire, with Robert Sandeman being made the political leader for Baluchistan. The arrival of British troops led to the establishment of road and rail links and the introduction of schools, mainly for strategic purposes.
The British made the largely Pashtun area part of British Balochistan. In April 1883 it was combined with Pishin into a single administrative unit.
By the time of the earthquake on 31 May 1935, Quetta had developed into a bustling city with a number of multi-storey buildings. The earthquake, the epicentre of which was close to the city, destroyed most of the city infrastructure and killed an estimated 40,000 people. In the years since the city has been rebuilt mainly with local funds. Structures are now generally earthquake resistant comprising single storey structures built with bricks and re-inforced concrete.
On joining Pakistan, Quetta was made the capital city of the newly created province of Balochistan before it was combined with other Balochi states (Kalat, Makran, Lasbela and Kharan) to form the Baloch province. Quetta was to remain the capital of the province until 1971.
By JNZ
The area was originally inhabited by Kasi, of Pashtun tribe, The first detailed account of Quetta is from the 11th century when it was captured by Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his invasions of the Indian sub-continent. In 1543, the Mughal emperor Humayun rested in Quetta on his retreat to Persia, leaving his one-year-old son Akbar in the city until his return two years later. The Khan of Kalat ruled Quetta until 1556, when the Persians conquered the city, only to have it retaken by Akbar in 1595. In 1828 the first westerner to visit Quetta described it as a mud-walled fort surrounded by three hundred mud houses. Although the city was occupied briefly in 1839 by the British during the First Afghan War, it was not until 1876 that Quetta became part of the British Empire, with Robert Sandeman being made the political leader for Baluchistan. The arrival of British troops led to the establishment of road and rail links and the introduction of schools, mainly for strategic purposes.
The British made the largely Pashtun area part of British Balochistan. In April 1883 it was combined with Pishin into a single administrative unit.
By the time of the earthquake on 31 May 1935, Quetta had developed into a bustling city with a number of multi-storey buildings. The earthquake, the epicentre of which was close to the city, destroyed most of the city infrastructure and killed an estimated 40,000 people. In the years since the city has been rebuilt mainly with local funds. Structures are now generally earthquake resistant comprising single storey structures built with bricks and re-inforced concrete.
On joining Pakistan, Quetta was made the capital city of the newly created province of Balochistan before it was combined with other Balochi states (Kalat, Makran, Lasbela and Kharan) to form the Baloch province. Quetta was to remain the capital of the province until 1971.
By JNZ
Friday, 22 February 2013
Top Largest Deserts
Covering a combined total of about one-fifth to one-third of the land surface of the Earth, deserts are landscapes or regions that receive little precipitation, with a relatively high level of evaporation, creating a deficit. Areas designated deserts have an average annual precipitation of less than 16 inches.
The combination of light rainfall and high evaporation creates a dry, arid environment, and one of the Earth's major ecosystems.
Since water is a vital resource for every life-form, a limited array of organisms can survive in deserts. Plants and animals in desert habitats have adapted to survive in the harsh conditions of deserts. For example, many of the plant varieties in deserts have no leaves, reducing water loss, and they may have very deep roots to absorb water from deep below the earth's surface.
There are several types of deserts on Earth, defined based on the temperature of the region.
There are both hot and cold deserts, classified into semiarid, arid, and extremely arid or rainless deserts based on the total annual precipitation.
Although some definitions of the desert also include areas that are too cold to support vegetation, such as frigid deserts, the world desert map shows the distribution of only those areas that are conventionally termed as hot desert and temperate deserts. Polar deserts, which are located over the North and South Pole, are also not shown
The combination of light rainfall and high evaporation creates a dry, arid environment, and one of the Earth's major ecosystems.
Since water is a vital resource for every life-form, a limited array of organisms can survive in deserts. Plants and animals in desert habitats have adapted to survive in the harsh conditions of deserts. For example, many of the plant varieties in deserts have no leaves, reducing water loss, and they may have very deep roots to absorb water from deep below the earth's surface.
There are several types of deserts on Earth, defined based on the temperature of the region.
There are both hot and cold deserts, classified into semiarid, arid, and extremely arid or rainless deserts based on the total annual precipitation.
Although some definitions of the desert also include areas that are too cold to support vegetation, such as frigid deserts, the world desert map shows the distribution of only those areas that are conventionally termed as hot desert and temperate deserts. Polar deserts, which are located over the North and South Pole, are also not shown
Chiniot History
Chiniot has faced the periods of thousands years. And the story of the name of Chiniot
that is linked with the name of the Rani Chandan is absolutely wrong. It is wrong that it was
called "Chandan Vet" or "Chandaot" on behalf of Rani's name because the Period of the Rani,
who was the sister of Machi Khan, was of Temour, whereas Chiniot was existed as a city in
B.C.
The description about Chiniot is found in the famous book of sanskrit, “Ramine of Bal Make” of
1923 Dharmic Society of Dehli. On its 676 page we see some details about Chiniot, which is
written as Chani Vet. We also find some details of Chiniot in the history of Al-Brunei. He has
written that in Chani Vet commonly called as Ajhan, was a famous school of Hindus where a
special arrangement for religious studies was made. With these details, two things become
clear;The name of the town was Chani Vet and the name of the school was Ajhan. Now the
point is whether the word ‘Cahni Vet’ belongs to snsikrat language or to some other
language. According to the research of Pandit Laxmi Narine, Ajhan was existed on the other
side of the River Chenab where is now Chanab Nagar (Rabwa), and a little town Cahni Vet
was on the other side, but in the shape of mound. With the help of such details, we can say
that there had been a town with the name of Chani Vet for several years and the school was
too. But later on, this town destroyed and rebuilt after a long time. In such a way, the
history of this town hid under the layers of past and disappeared in the passage of past. A
regular and authentic history of this city starts with the age of Maurine Family.
In 326 B.C., history saved the details about a man called Chenek and who belonged to
Chiniot. He was very bold and brave. He was also a very noble member of his tribe. So he
succeeded to get access in the court of ‘Chander Gupt’ and this man proved as a loyal
minister of Chander Gupt. He got built many schools and mandirs. It was his age when
Alexander made an assault and the whole area of Chiniot and Pindi Bhattian went in the
custody of Greeks. Alexander himself did not reach here but his soldiers encamped here. The
local leaders and the members of the family of Chander Gupt were to face the lost. But after
two years, they regained their power and forced the Greeks to run away and again
established their government. This government remained in power till 30 years B.C. In the
same year, some Greeks who belonged to Bekrene Family had been living in the provinces of
Lahore and Multan after exile, organized their martial power, attacked and took Chiniot and
suburbs in their custody. This family ruled for some years but Chander Gupt Family started a
war. In this war, the leader of Bekrene Family was killed and government of Chiniot
transferred to Chander Gupt Family and remained ruler till 471 A.D.
In 471 A.D. a tribe, Whit Huns belonged to Portugal came here for trade, made an organized
rebellion and took over different areas including Pindi Bhattian, Chiniot , Bhakkar, Layya,
Jhang and Multan after beating the local leaders. This tribe killed the people and looted the
local people. This tribe ruled over these regions by force till 550 A.D. In the same year, a
person, Chander belonged to the family of Maharaja Bekriya Jeet provided army and a fought
a battle against Europeans and got over all the cities and towns after beating them. Chander
was killed in this war. A mandir was built as his memoir in Chiniot that was demolished in the
period of Aurangzaib Aalam Geer and a strong castle was built in the same place.
After the death of Chander, Herman Roy ruled over Chiniot till 631 A.D. In 632 A.D., a
Brahman Chuch brought about the end of the government of Herman Roy and ruled over a
large area from Sindh to Kashmir. At that time, Sindh was spread upto Pindi Bhattian. After
his death, his brother Chander became the ruler. He was the follower of Buddhism. During his
reign, Buddhism was preached in northern Punjab. After the death of Chander, Dahir who was
the son late Chuch, became the ruler and was defeated by Muhammad bin Qasim. And near
about in 716 A.D. Muslims started to visit Chiniot. First Muslim ruler of Chiniot was Dawood
Tai, who remained ruler only for two years and died. History could not save the names of
rulers who succeeded him. The people who belonged to Ismaeeli sect preached here for their
religion and gave it strength but Muhammad Ghori defeated and they were exiled. Sasani
Kings ruled over till 970 A.D. then Elegstene occupied and Chiniot became a part of his state.
In 976 A.D. Subuktagene became the king and he waas defeated in 980 A.D. by Raja Jai Pall.
In the same year, Subuktagene with the help of Sheikh Hamid Lodhi who was the ruler of
Multan, defeated Raja jai Pall .Raja Jai Pall agreed for peace on the very terms that he would
handed over the region near River Chenab.( Accoding to Jhang Gazier of 1929 A.D., Tas-e-
Chenab is used for Chiniot because on its both sides Kerana Bar and Sandle Bar are present.)
But after two years, the leaders of karamtia Sect destroyed this region.
In 1010 A.D. Sultan Mahmoood Ghaznavi not only killed the Karamti leaders but also
occupied a vast region.
From 1030 A.D. to 1113 A.D. Khokher ruled over this region and built many armed-stations
there. In 1175 A.D., Shahab-ud-Din Ghori defeated the Khokhers and occupied the whole
region. But with the combined conspiracy between Ghakhar Tribe of Gujranwala and
Khokhers, Shahab-ud-Din Ghori was assassinated and Khokhers established their government
again.
In 1218 A.D. Ghulaman Family ruled over Chiniot and Pathans, Turkish and Mogul ruled over
this region. We find the witness of the stronger features of the history of Chiniot in the same
period. Mogul conqueror Zaheer-ud-Din Babar described about Chiniot at many places. Before
Babar, Turkish tartars were ruling here. In these Turkish, there was a man Machi Khan who
was very brave and valiant. He was the ruler of Bhera and Khushab. The ruler of Chiniot got
him killed and occupied the Khushab. The sister of Machi Khan whose name was Channi put
on the male-dress and commanded her army towards Chiniot to revenge the bloodshed of her
brother. She arrived at the bank of the River Chenab. The ruler of Chiniot was also informed
about her arrival by his spies. Therefore, armed forces of both regions came face to face and
a war fought, which continued for three days. Channi became the triumphant. The city was
affected very badly during this battle. So, Channi ordered to build a new city, which is
existed. That is why, some historians made a wrong notion that this city was built by Rani
Cahndan. It is clear that both Rani and Chandan are the names of Hindus and these were not
the names of Tartars. The name of the sister of Machi Khan was Channi and the city was
also called “vet”. So, generally, people thought it as a deformed state of the Chani Vet.
During the reign of Channi, Mogul leader attacked and went away after plundering. The
second larger attack was made by Mogul in 1398 A.D. who ruined the whole region. Third
attack was made by the ruler of Kabul, Sheikh Ali on the request of Shah Rukh Mirza in 1430
A.D. Sultan Shah Lodhi was ruler at that time. Sheikh Ali occupied the region from Trimo to
Pindi Bhattain. In 1431 A.D., Khokher took advantage of the panic created due to Mogul and
started ruling over this region. but soon they were defeated and the Langa tribe of Multan
ruled over this region till 1528 A.D. But they could not stay there longer because of the
attack of Mogul and Zaheer-ud-Din Babar ruled over Chiniot till 1540 A.D. Then after
defeating Humayyo, Sher Shah Sori got control over Chiniot and the city mad much progress
and development during this period. From Jalal-ud-Din Akbar to Bahadur Shah Zafar, Chiniot
remained in direct control of the Governemnt of Delhi or seldom in the control of local
leaders. In this period, the visit of Mogul Emperors Jahangeer and Shahjahan were a great
blessing for the Chiniot as in the period of Jahangeer, Ilm-ud-Din Insari who was an
inhabitant of Chiniot, was appointed as the Governor of Punjab and the people of Chiniot
attained access to Royal Court. Then in the period of Shah Jahna, Nawab Sad Ullah Khan
was in government and Chiniot became a center of wealth and status. This region was also
important by politics. The family of Qazi was of importance and power and their forefathers
had been appointed as “Qazi-ul-Fiqqa”(Chief Justice). This family still possesses the orders,
documents and gifts of the Mogul kings and the large area of land was awarded too.
Nawab Wali Dad Khan Sial also ruled over Chiniot for some years. This ruler was very
experienced, intelligent and courageous. He occupied on Chiniot, Rajoa, Langer, Kamalia and
Maari, and in this way expanded his state. But he had to return the state of Rajoa to Syed
because of the order of Mogul Emperor. He died in 1163 A.D. He had no male child. He had
only one daughter who was married with Inayat Ullah Khan who was the nephew of Wali Dad
Kahn. She gave birth two sons who fought each other for power and in the result, Inayat
Ullah Khan himself took the control of the state in 1167 A.D. But in the same days, Ahmad
Shah Abdali made an assault on Chiniot. According to Jhang gazetteer, Ahmad Shah Abdali
made assault in 1778 A.D. but a pact was made and Inayat Ullah agreed to pay tax. In the
same days, Sikhs started attacks. The first attack on Chiniot was made by the families of
Sardar Ganda Singh and Sardar Dasso Singh. Anoop Singh was the superintending officer of
the castle. He made conspiracy with Sikh army and opened the door of the castle at the
very time of attack. But the army of Inayat Ullah fought boldly and killed the Sikhs and gave
shelter to those Sikhs who sought for forgiveness. In this way Sial remained the ruler of
Chiniot.
Inayat Ullah Khan died in 1203 A.D. After his death, Mahmood Khan and Sahib Khan
who were his sons started to fight against each other. Mahmood Khan had been appointed
as the successor of his father and he was the ruler. Sahib Khan became a rebel and got
attacked on Chiniot and other regions with the help of Mahaan Singh, the father of Maharaja
Ranjeet Singh. But Mahmood Khan faced them boldly and defeated them. Sahib Khan fled
away and remained disappeared for six months. He again organized his power and got his
brother killed and took the charge of the government but he was killed by his enemies after a
short period of four months and Kabeer Khan became the ruler of Chiniot. Kabeer Khan
married the widow of Sahib Khan and generated close relations with the two sects of Sials.
He died after eleven years of supremacy and his son, ahmad Kahn who had become rebel in
the life of his father, succeeded his father. Maharaja Ranjeet Singh made an assault on
Chiniot in 1809 A.D. and conquered it. But Ahmad Khan made a pact with Ranjeet Singh
decided to pay sixty thousands rupees per year as tax and included Chiniot in his state. But
this pact broke and Ranjeet Singh again made another assault on Chiniot with the declaration
that Ahmad Kahn had tried to break the promise. But another pact was made on these terms
that the son of Ahmad Khan whose name was Inayat Khan, would be in the custody of Sikhs
and he would pay seventy thousands rupees per year. So ianyat Khan got a regular
commission in the army of Sikh army. Later on, the state of Chiniot went into the control of
Bhangi Sikhs. In the period of Sikhs, Jana Singh, Mohan Singh and Ghulab Singh, the ruler of
Kashmir were ruler. Due to inner problems of Sikhs, Bhangi Sikhs were ruling over Chiniot.
Ranjeet Singh made an assault and got victory. At that time, Mian Sultan Khoja was the
administrator of the castle and army of Chiniot. He did not open the door even after defeat
because his master did not order him to do so. Maharaja Ranjeet Singh was deeply impressed
by his loyalty and he awarded him the land of Kalo Wal and Changer Wala, which was in the
custody of Rehan’s befor this. That is why the Khojas of Chiniot became power both
politically and worldly. In 1849 A.D., this region went into the custody of English rulers.
Hamilton was appointed as the first deputy commissioner. Pindi Bhattain became a part of
Gujranwala.
There were some families who accepted the English as their ruler without any hatred or
prejudice but their some other families also here who participated in the movement against
the government. In Chiniot, a family of Saadat Gilani and the people of Basaan Tribe
remained busy in fighting against the English ruler for freedom, and confronted the pains and
troubles of prison. Today too, people recalls the valour and bravery of Basaan Tribe in the
local songs and pay tribute to them, particularly in villages.
Hazrat Molana Noor Ahmad Naqsh Bandi played an important role in the freedom-war of 1857
A.D. and faced the troubles and tortures of jail. In the start of twentieth century, a
freedom-fighter of Chiniot, Hazrat Molana Muhammad Zakar strengthen the freedom
movement and took part in every movement of freedom. The first martyr of Kashmir Freedom
movement that was started by Majlis-e-Ehrar-e-Islam, was an inhabitant of Chiniot whose
name was Elahi Bukhsh. He became the martyr of Kashmir Freedom movement.
Chiniot had also enjoyed the right to represent itself on district level politically. Syed Ghulam
Abbas and Mian Hussain Shah, who belonged to Rajoa Sadaat, were elected as the members
of federal assemblies. In 1940 A.D., when Quaid-e-Azam got the Resolution of Pakistan
accepted and invited the nation, then a member of Qazi family, Qazi Ghulam Mortaza (Late)
offered his services. There are many other political personalities like Hakeem Mirza Iltaf
Ahmad, Muhammad Azeem Tameem and Chaudry Muhammad Ismaeel Maggoon. The role of
Malik Allah Ditta and Malik Nazar Muhammad in Majlis-e-Ehrar-e-Islam, and Doctor Muhammad
Ismaeel in Khaksar Tanzeem is of great worth and praise.
that is linked with the name of the Rani Chandan is absolutely wrong. It is wrong that it was
called "Chandan Vet" or "Chandaot" on behalf of Rani's name because the Period of the Rani,
who was the sister of Machi Khan, was of Temour, whereas Chiniot was existed as a city in
B.C.
The description about Chiniot is found in the famous book of sanskrit, “Ramine of Bal Make” of
1923 Dharmic Society of Dehli. On its 676 page we see some details about Chiniot, which is
written as Chani Vet. We also find some details of Chiniot in the history of Al-Brunei. He has
written that in Chani Vet commonly called as Ajhan, was a famous school of Hindus where a
special arrangement for religious studies was made. With these details, two things become
clear;The name of the town was Chani Vet and the name of the school was Ajhan. Now the
point is whether the word ‘Cahni Vet’ belongs to snsikrat language or to some other
language. According to the research of Pandit Laxmi Narine, Ajhan was existed on the other
side of the River Chenab where is now Chanab Nagar (Rabwa), and a little town Cahni Vet
was on the other side, but in the shape of mound. With the help of such details, we can say
that there had been a town with the name of Chani Vet for several years and the school was
too. But later on, this town destroyed and rebuilt after a long time. In such a way, the
history of this town hid under the layers of past and disappeared in the passage of past. A
regular and authentic history of this city starts with the age of Maurine Family.
In 326 B.C., history saved the details about a man called Chenek and who belonged to
Chiniot. He was very bold and brave. He was also a very noble member of his tribe. So he
succeeded to get access in the court of ‘Chander Gupt’ and this man proved as a loyal
minister of Chander Gupt. He got built many schools and mandirs. It was his age when
Alexander made an assault and the whole area of Chiniot and Pindi Bhattian went in the
custody of Greeks. Alexander himself did not reach here but his soldiers encamped here. The
local leaders and the members of the family of Chander Gupt were to face the lost. But after
two years, they regained their power and forced the Greeks to run away and again
established their government. This government remained in power till 30 years B.C. In the
same year, some Greeks who belonged to Bekrene Family had been living in the provinces of
Lahore and Multan after exile, organized their martial power, attacked and took Chiniot and
suburbs in their custody. This family ruled for some years but Chander Gupt Family started a
war. In this war, the leader of Bekrene Family was killed and government of Chiniot
transferred to Chander Gupt Family and remained ruler till 471 A.D.
In 471 A.D. a tribe, Whit Huns belonged to Portugal came here for trade, made an organized
rebellion and took over different areas including Pindi Bhattian, Chiniot , Bhakkar, Layya,
Jhang and Multan after beating the local leaders. This tribe killed the people and looted the
local people. This tribe ruled over these regions by force till 550 A.D. In the same year, a
person, Chander belonged to the family of Maharaja Bekriya Jeet provided army and a fought
a battle against Europeans and got over all the cities and towns after beating them. Chander
was killed in this war. A mandir was built as his memoir in Chiniot that was demolished in the
period of Aurangzaib Aalam Geer and a strong castle was built in the same place.
After the death of Chander, Herman Roy ruled over Chiniot till 631 A.D. In 632 A.D., a
Brahman Chuch brought about the end of the government of Herman Roy and ruled over a
large area from Sindh to Kashmir. At that time, Sindh was spread upto Pindi Bhattian. After
his death, his brother Chander became the ruler. He was the follower of Buddhism. During his
reign, Buddhism was preached in northern Punjab. After the death of Chander, Dahir who was
the son late Chuch, became the ruler and was defeated by Muhammad bin Qasim. And near
about in 716 A.D. Muslims started to visit Chiniot. First Muslim ruler of Chiniot was Dawood
Tai, who remained ruler only for two years and died. History could not save the names of
rulers who succeeded him. The people who belonged to Ismaeeli sect preached here for their
religion and gave it strength but Muhammad Ghori defeated and they were exiled. Sasani
Kings ruled over till 970 A.D. then Elegstene occupied and Chiniot became a part of his state.
In 976 A.D. Subuktagene became the king and he waas defeated in 980 A.D. by Raja Jai Pall.
In the same year, Subuktagene with the help of Sheikh Hamid Lodhi who was the ruler of
Multan, defeated Raja jai Pall .Raja Jai Pall agreed for peace on the very terms that he would
handed over the region near River Chenab.( Accoding to Jhang Gazier of 1929 A.D., Tas-e-
Chenab is used for Chiniot because on its both sides Kerana Bar and Sandle Bar are present.)
But after two years, the leaders of karamtia Sect destroyed this region.
In 1010 A.D. Sultan Mahmoood Ghaznavi not only killed the Karamti leaders but also
occupied a vast region.
From 1030 A.D. to 1113 A.D. Khokher ruled over this region and built many armed-stations
there. In 1175 A.D., Shahab-ud-Din Ghori defeated the Khokhers and occupied the whole
region. But with the combined conspiracy between Ghakhar Tribe of Gujranwala and
Khokhers, Shahab-ud-Din Ghori was assassinated and Khokhers established their government
again.
In 1218 A.D. Ghulaman Family ruled over Chiniot and Pathans, Turkish and Mogul ruled over
this region. We find the witness of the stronger features of the history of Chiniot in the same
period. Mogul conqueror Zaheer-ud-Din Babar described about Chiniot at many places. Before
Babar, Turkish tartars were ruling here. In these Turkish, there was a man Machi Khan who
was very brave and valiant. He was the ruler of Bhera and Khushab. The ruler of Chiniot got
him killed and occupied the Khushab. The sister of Machi Khan whose name was Channi put
on the male-dress and commanded her army towards Chiniot to revenge the bloodshed of her
brother. She arrived at the bank of the River Chenab. The ruler of Chiniot was also informed
about her arrival by his spies. Therefore, armed forces of both regions came face to face and
a war fought, which continued for three days. Channi became the triumphant. The city was
affected very badly during this battle. So, Channi ordered to build a new city, which is
existed. That is why, some historians made a wrong notion that this city was built by Rani
Cahndan. It is clear that both Rani and Chandan are the names of Hindus and these were not
the names of Tartars. The name of the sister of Machi Khan was Channi and the city was
also called “vet”. So, generally, people thought it as a deformed state of the Chani Vet.
During the reign of Channi, Mogul leader attacked and went away after plundering. The
second larger attack was made by Mogul in 1398 A.D. who ruined the whole region. Third
attack was made by the ruler of Kabul, Sheikh Ali on the request of Shah Rukh Mirza in 1430
A.D. Sultan Shah Lodhi was ruler at that time. Sheikh Ali occupied the region from Trimo to
Pindi Bhattain. In 1431 A.D., Khokher took advantage of the panic created due to Mogul and
started ruling over this region. but soon they were defeated and the Langa tribe of Multan
ruled over this region till 1528 A.D. But they could not stay there longer because of the
attack of Mogul and Zaheer-ud-Din Babar ruled over Chiniot till 1540 A.D. Then after
defeating Humayyo, Sher Shah Sori got control over Chiniot and the city mad much progress
and development during this period. From Jalal-ud-Din Akbar to Bahadur Shah Zafar, Chiniot
remained in direct control of the Governemnt of Delhi or seldom in the control of local
leaders. In this period, the visit of Mogul Emperors Jahangeer and Shahjahan were a great
blessing for the Chiniot as in the period of Jahangeer, Ilm-ud-Din Insari who was an
inhabitant of Chiniot, was appointed as the Governor of Punjab and the people of Chiniot
attained access to Royal Court. Then in the period of Shah Jahna, Nawab Sad Ullah Khan
was in government and Chiniot became a center of wealth and status. This region was also
important by politics. The family of Qazi was of importance and power and their forefathers
had been appointed as “Qazi-ul-Fiqqa”(Chief Justice). This family still possesses the orders,
documents and gifts of the Mogul kings and the large area of land was awarded too.
Nawab Wali Dad Khan Sial also ruled over Chiniot for some years. This ruler was very
experienced, intelligent and courageous. He occupied on Chiniot, Rajoa, Langer, Kamalia and
Maari, and in this way expanded his state. But he had to return the state of Rajoa to Syed
because of the order of Mogul Emperor. He died in 1163 A.D. He had no male child. He had
only one daughter who was married with Inayat Ullah Khan who was the nephew of Wali Dad
Kahn. She gave birth two sons who fought each other for power and in the result, Inayat
Ullah Khan himself took the control of the state in 1167 A.D. But in the same days, Ahmad
Shah Abdali made an assault on Chiniot. According to Jhang gazetteer, Ahmad Shah Abdali
made assault in 1778 A.D. but a pact was made and Inayat Ullah agreed to pay tax. In the
same days, Sikhs started attacks. The first attack on Chiniot was made by the families of
Sardar Ganda Singh and Sardar Dasso Singh. Anoop Singh was the superintending officer of
the castle. He made conspiracy with Sikh army and opened the door of the castle at the
very time of attack. But the army of Inayat Ullah fought boldly and killed the Sikhs and gave
shelter to those Sikhs who sought for forgiveness. In this way Sial remained the ruler of
Chiniot.
Inayat Ullah Khan died in 1203 A.D. After his death, Mahmood Khan and Sahib Khan
who were his sons started to fight against each other. Mahmood Khan had been appointed
as the successor of his father and he was the ruler. Sahib Khan became a rebel and got
attacked on Chiniot and other regions with the help of Mahaan Singh, the father of Maharaja
Ranjeet Singh. But Mahmood Khan faced them boldly and defeated them. Sahib Khan fled
away and remained disappeared for six months. He again organized his power and got his
brother killed and took the charge of the government but he was killed by his enemies after a
short period of four months and Kabeer Khan became the ruler of Chiniot. Kabeer Khan
married the widow of Sahib Khan and generated close relations with the two sects of Sials.
He died after eleven years of supremacy and his son, ahmad Kahn who had become rebel in
the life of his father, succeeded his father. Maharaja Ranjeet Singh made an assault on
Chiniot in 1809 A.D. and conquered it. But Ahmad Khan made a pact with Ranjeet Singh
decided to pay sixty thousands rupees per year as tax and included Chiniot in his state. But
this pact broke and Ranjeet Singh again made another assault on Chiniot with the declaration
that Ahmad Kahn had tried to break the promise. But another pact was made on these terms
that the son of Ahmad Khan whose name was Inayat Khan, would be in the custody of Sikhs
and he would pay seventy thousands rupees per year. So ianyat Khan got a regular
commission in the army of Sikh army. Later on, the state of Chiniot went into the control of
Bhangi Sikhs. In the period of Sikhs, Jana Singh, Mohan Singh and Ghulab Singh, the ruler of
Kashmir were ruler. Due to inner problems of Sikhs, Bhangi Sikhs were ruling over Chiniot.
Ranjeet Singh made an assault and got victory. At that time, Mian Sultan Khoja was the
administrator of the castle and army of Chiniot. He did not open the door even after defeat
because his master did not order him to do so. Maharaja Ranjeet Singh was deeply impressed
by his loyalty and he awarded him the land of Kalo Wal and Changer Wala, which was in the
custody of Rehan’s befor this. That is why the Khojas of Chiniot became power both
politically and worldly. In 1849 A.D., this region went into the custody of English rulers.
Hamilton was appointed as the first deputy commissioner. Pindi Bhattain became a part of
Gujranwala.
There were some families who accepted the English as their ruler without any hatred or
prejudice but their some other families also here who participated in the movement against
the government. In Chiniot, a family of Saadat Gilani and the people of Basaan Tribe
remained busy in fighting against the English ruler for freedom, and confronted the pains and
troubles of prison. Today too, people recalls the valour and bravery of Basaan Tribe in the
local songs and pay tribute to them, particularly in villages.
Hazrat Molana Noor Ahmad Naqsh Bandi played an important role in the freedom-war of 1857
A.D. and faced the troubles and tortures of jail. In the start of twentieth century, a
freedom-fighter of Chiniot, Hazrat Molana Muhammad Zakar strengthen the freedom
movement and took part in every movement of freedom. The first martyr of Kashmir Freedom
movement that was started by Majlis-e-Ehrar-e-Islam, was an inhabitant of Chiniot whose
name was Elahi Bukhsh. He became the martyr of Kashmir Freedom movement.
Chiniot had also enjoyed the right to represent itself on district level politically. Syed Ghulam
Abbas and Mian Hussain Shah, who belonged to Rajoa Sadaat, were elected as the members
of federal assemblies. In 1940 A.D., when Quaid-e-Azam got the Resolution of Pakistan
accepted and invited the nation, then a member of Qazi family, Qazi Ghulam Mortaza (Late)
offered his services. There are many other political personalities like Hakeem Mirza Iltaf
Ahmad, Muhammad Azeem Tameem and Chaudry Muhammad Ismaeel Maggoon. The role of
Malik Allah Ditta and Malik Nazar Muhammad in Majlis-e-Ehrar-e-Islam, and Doctor Muhammad
Ismaeel in Khaksar Tanzeem is of great worth and praise.
Wednesday, 20 February 2013
Bangladesh History
Bangladesh came to today's shape through a long history of political evolution. Bengal was probably the wealthiest part of the subcontinent up till the 16th century. The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. All of this was just a prelude to the unstoppable tide of Islam which washed over northern India at the end of the 12th century. Mohammed Bakhtiar Khalzhi from Turkistan captured Bengal in 1199 with only 20 men.
Under the Mughal viceroys, art and literature flourished, overland trade expanded and Bengal was opened to world maritime trade - the latter marking the death knell of Mughal power as Europeans began to establish themselves in the region. The Portuguese arrived as early as the 15th century but were ousted in 1633 by local opposition. The East India Company negotiated terms to establish a fortified trading post in Calcutta in 1690.
The decline of Mughal power led to greater provincial autonomy, heralding the rise of the independent dynasty of the nawabs of Bengal. Humble East India Company clerk Robert Clive ended up effectively ruling Bengal when one of the impetuous nawabs attacked the thriving British enclave in Calcutta and stuffed those unlucky enough not to escape in an underground cellar. Clive retook Calcutta a year later and the British Government replaced the East India Company following the Indian Mutiny in 1857.
The Britons established an organizational and social structure unparalleled in Bengal, and Calcutta became one of the most important centers for commerce, education and culture in the subcontinent. However, many Bangladeshi historians blame the British dictatorial agricultural policies and promotion of the semi-feudal zamindar system for draining the region of its wealth and damaging its social fabric. The British presence was a relief to the minority Hindus but a catastrophe for the Muslims. The Hindus cooperated with the Brits, entering British educational institutions and studying the English language, but the Muslims refused to cooperate, and rioted whenever crops failed or another local product was rendered unprofitable by government policy.
At the closure of World War II it was clear that European colonialism had run its course and Indian independence was inevitable. Independence was attained in 1947 but the struggle was bitter and divisive, especially in Bengal where the fight for self-government was complicated by internal religious conflict. The British, realizing any agreement between the Muslims and Hindus was impossible, decided to partition the subcontinent. That Bengal and Punjab, the two overwhelmingly Muslim regions, lay on opposite sides of India was only one stumbling block. The situation was complicated in Bengal where the major cash crop, jute, was produced in the Muslim-dominated east, but processed and shipped from the Hindu-dominated city of Calcutta in the west.
Inequalities between the two regions i.e. East and West Pakistan soon stirred up a sense of Bengali nationalism that had not been reckoned with during the push for Muslim independence. When the Pakistan government declared that `Urdu and only Urdu' would be the national language, the Bangla-speaking Bengalis decided it was time to assert their cultural identity. The drive to reinstate the Bangla language metamorphosed into a push for self-government and when the Awami League, a nationalistic party, won a majority in the 1971 national elections, the president of Pakistan, faced with this unacceptable result, postponed opening the National Assembly. Riots and strikes broke out in East Pakistan, the independent state of Bangladesh was unilaterally announced, and Pakistan sent troops to quell the rebellion.
The ensuing war was one of the shortest and bloodiest of modern times, with the Pakistan army occupying all major towns, using napalm against villages, and slaughtering and raping villagers. Bangladeshis refer to Pakistan's brutal tactics as attempted genocide. Border clashes between Pakistan and India increased as Indian-trained Bangladeshi guerrillas crossed the border. When the Pakistani air force made a pre-emptive attack on Indian forces, open warfare ensued. Indian troops crossed the border and the Pakistani army found itself being attacked from the east by the Indian army, the north and east by guerrillas and from all quarters by the civilian population. In 11 days it was all over and Bangladesh, the world's 139th country, officially came into existence. Sheikh Mujib, one of the founders of the Awami League, became the country's first prime minister in January 1972 ; he was assassinated in 1975 during a period of crisis
The ruined and decimated new country experienced famine in 1973-74, followed by martial law, successive military coups and political assassinations. In 1979, Bangladesh began a short-lived experiment with democracy led by the overwhelmingly popular President Zia, who established good relationships with the West and the oil-rich Islamic countries. His assassination in 1981 ultimately returned the country to a military government that periodically made vague announcements that elections would be held `soon'. While these announcements were rapturously greeted by the local press as proof that Bangladesh was indeed a democracy, nothing came of them until 1991. That year the military dictator General Ershad was forced to resign by an unprecedented popular movement led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and the Awami League.
Democracy was re-established and the economy ticked along at a 4.5% growth rate, which hardly made it an 'Asian tiger' but was at least respectable. Political dog-fighting between the BNP and the Awami League became acrimonious in the run up to national elections in February 1996 leaving the country strike-ridden and rudderless. The election was marred by violence and boycotted by the three main opposition parties, resulting in a BNP shoo-in. However, low voter turnout and reports of ballot-box stuffing by polling officials raised serious questions about the government's legitimacy and in April 1996 Prime Minister Begum Khaleda agreed to stand down and appointed an interim caretaker administration, pending new elections scheduled for 12 June 1996.In the elections Awami League got the largest number of seats. Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the leader of the Awami League, was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Bangladesh Government.
Under the Mughal viceroys, art and literature flourished, overland trade expanded and Bengal was opened to world maritime trade - the latter marking the death knell of Mughal power as Europeans began to establish themselves in the region. The Portuguese arrived as early as the 15th century but were ousted in 1633 by local opposition. The East India Company negotiated terms to establish a fortified trading post in Calcutta in 1690.
The decline of Mughal power led to greater provincial autonomy, heralding the rise of the independent dynasty of the nawabs of Bengal. Humble East India Company clerk Robert Clive ended up effectively ruling Bengal when one of the impetuous nawabs attacked the thriving British enclave in Calcutta and stuffed those unlucky enough not to escape in an underground cellar. Clive retook Calcutta a year later and the British Government replaced the East India Company following the Indian Mutiny in 1857.
The Britons established an organizational and social structure unparalleled in Bengal, and Calcutta became one of the most important centers for commerce, education and culture in the subcontinent. However, many Bangladeshi historians blame the British dictatorial agricultural policies and promotion of the semi-feudal zamindar system for draining the region of its wealth and damaging its social fabric. The British presence was a relief to the minority Hindus but a catastrophe for the Muslims. The Hindus cooperated with the Brits, entering British educational institutions and studying the English language, but the Muslims refused to cooperate, and rioted whenever crops failed or another local product was rendered unprofitable by government policy.
At the closure of World War II it was clear that European colonialism had run its course and Indian independence was inevitable. Independence was attained in 1947 but the struggle was bitter and divisive, especially in Bengal where the fight for self-government was complicated by internal religious conflict. The British, realizing any agreement between the Muslims and Hindus was impossible, decided to partition the subcontinent. That Bengal and Punjab, the two overwhelmingly Muslim regions, lay on opposite sides of India was only one stumbling block. The situation was complicated in Bengal where the major cash crop, jute, was produced in the Muslim-dominated east, but processed and shipped from the Hindu-dominated city of Calcutta in the west.
Inequalities between the two regions i.e. East and West Pakistan soon stirred up a sense of Bengali nationalism that had not been reckoned with during the push for Muslim independence. When the Pakistan government declared that `Urdu and only Urdu' would be the national language, the Bangla-speaking Bengalis decided it was time to assert their cultural identity. The drive to reinstate the Bangla language metamorphosed into a push for self-government and when the Awami League, a nationalistic party, won a majority in the 1971 national elections, the president of Pakistan, faced with this unacceptable result, postponed opening the National Assembly. Riots and strikes broke out in East Pakistan, the independent state of Bangladesh was unilaterally announced, and Pakistan sent troops to quell the rebellion.
The ensuing war was one of the shortest and bloodiest of modern times, with the Pakistan army occupying all major towns, using napalm against villages, and slaughtering and raping villagers. Bangladeshis refer to Pakistan's brutal tactics as attempted genocide. Border clashes between Pakistan and India increased as Indian-trained Bangladeshi guerrillas crossed the border. When the Pakistani air force made a pre-emptive attack on Indian forces, open warfare ensued. Indian troops crossed the border and the Pakistani army found itself being attacked from the east by the Indian army, the north and east by guerrillas and from all quarters by the civilian population. In 11 days it was all over and Bangladesh, the world's 139th country, officially came into existence. Sheikh Mujib, one of the founders of the Awami League, became the country's first prime minister in January 1972 ; he was assassinated in 1975 during a period of crisis
The ruined and decimated new country experienced famine in 1973-74, followed by martial law, successive military coups and political assassinations. In 1979, Bangladesh began a short-lived experiment with democracy led by the overwhelmingly popular President Zia, who established good relationships with the West and the oil-rich Islamic countries. His assassination in 1981 ultimately returned the country to a military government that periodically made vague announcements that elections would be held `soon'. While these announcements were rapturously greeted by the local press as proof that Bangladesh was indeed a democracy, nothing came of them until 1991. That year the military dictator General Ershad was forced to resign by an unprecedented popular movement led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and the Awami League.
Democracy was re-established and the economy ticked along at a 4.5% growth rate, which hardly made it an 'Asian tiger' but was at least respectable. Political dog-fighting between the BNP and the Awami League became acrimonious in the run up to national elections in February 1996 leaving the country strike-ridden and rudderless. The election was marred by violence and boycotted by the three main opposition parties, resulting in a BNP shoo-in. However, low voter turnout and reports of ballot-box stuffing by polling officials raised serious questions about the government's legitimacy and in April 1996 Prime Minister Begum Khaleda agreed to stand down and appointed an interim caretaker administration, pending new elections scheduled for 12 June 1996.In the elections Awami League got the largest number of seats. Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the leader of the Awami League, was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Bangladesh Government.
Iraq history
In ancient times the land area now known as modern Iraq was almost equivalent to Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia Map (8KB) the land between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates (in Arabic, the Dijla and Furat, respectively), the
Mesopotamian plain was called the Fertile Crescent. This region is known as the Cradle of Civilization; was the birthplace of the varied civilizations that moved us from prehistory to history. An advanced civilization flourished in this region long before that of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, for it was here in about 4000BC that the Sumerian culture flourished Map of Mesopotamia showing geographic features surrounding ancient Sumer (7KB).
The civilized life that emerged at Sumer was shaped by two conflicting factors: the unpredictability of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which at any time could unleash devastating floods that wiped out entire peoples, and the extreme richness of the river valleys, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil. Thus, while the river valleys of southern Mesopotamia attracted migrations of neighboring peoples and made possible, for the first time in history, the growing of surplus food, the volatility of the rivers necessitated a form of collective management to protect the marshy, low-lying land from flooding.
As surplus production increased and as collective management became more advanced, a process of urbanization evolved and Sumerian civilization took root.
The people of the Tigris and the Euphrates basin, the ancient Sumerians, using the fertile land and the abundant water supply of the area, developed sophisticated irrigation systems and created what was probably the first cereal agriculture as well as the earliest writing, cuneiform - a way of arranging impression stamped on clay by the wedge-like section of chopped-off reed stylus into wet clay.
Through writing, the Sumerians were able to pass on complex agricultural techniques to successive generations; this led to marked improvements in agricultural production. Writing evolved to keep track of property. Clay envelopes marked with the owner's rolled seal were used to hold tokens for goods, the tokens within recording a specific transaction. Later on, the envelope and tokens were discarded and symbols scratched into clay recorded transactions such as 2 bunches of wheat or 7 cows. As writing evolved, pictures gave way to lines pressed into clay with a wedge tip; this allowed a scribe to make many different types of strokes without changing his grip. By 3,000 BC, the script evolved into a full syllabic alphabet.
The commerce of the times is recorded in great depth. Double entry accounting practices were found to be a part of the records. This remarkable innovation has been used to this day, as a standard for record keeping.
It was the custom for all to pay for what they needed at a fair price. Royalty was not exception. The king may have had an edge on getting a "better deal", but it wasn't the law as it was in Egypt where the Pharaoh was the "living god" and as such, owned all things. It seems that everyone had the right to bargain fairly for his or her goods. Unlike their Egyptian neighbors, these people were believers in private property, and the kings were very much answerable to the citizens. In Egypt, all things, including the people and property, were owned by the pharaoh. Sumerians invented the wheel and the first plow in 3700 BC.
Sumerians developed a math system based on the numeral 60, which is the basis of time in the modern world. Sumerian society was "Matriarchal" and women had a highly respected place in society. Banking originated in Mesopotamia (Babylonia) out of the activities of temples and palaces, which provided safe places for the storage of valuables. Initially deposits of grain were accepted and later other goods including cattle, agricultural implements, and precious metals. Another important Sumerian legacy was the recording of literature.
Poetry and epic literature were produced. The most famous Sumerian epic and the one that has survived in the most nearly complete form is the epic of Gilgamesh. The story of Gilgamesh, who actually was king of the city-state of Uruk in approximately 2700 BC, is a moving story of the ruler's deep sorrow at the death of his friend Enkidu, and of his consequent search for immortality. Other central themes of the story are a devastating flood and the tenuous nature of man's existence, and ended by meeting a wise and ancient man who had survived a great flood by building an ark.
Land was cultivated for the first time, early calendars were used and the first written alphabet was invented here. Its bountiful land, fresh waters, and varying climate contributed to the creation of deep-rooted civilization that had fostered humanity from its affluent fountain since thousand of years.
Sumerian states were believed to be under the rule of a local god or goddess, and a bureaucratic system of the priesthood arose to oversee the ritualistic and complex religion. High Priests represented the gods on earth, one of their jobs being to discern the divine will. A favorite method of divination was reading sheep or goat entrails. The priests ruled from their ziggurats, high rising temples of sunbaked brick with outside staircases leading to the shrine on top. The Sumerian gods personified local elements and natural forces. The Sumerians worshiped anu, the supreme god of heaven, Enlil, god of water, and Ea, god of magic and creator of man. The Sumerians held the belief that a sacred ritual marriage between the ruler and Inanna, goddess of love and fertility brought rich harvests.
Eventually, the Sumerians would have to battle another peoples, the Akkadians, who migrated up from the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadians were a Semitic people, that is, they spoke a language drawn from a family of languages called Semitic languages; a Semitic languages include Hebrew, Arabic, Assyrian, and Babylonian (the term "Semite" is a modern designation taken from the Hebrew Scriptures; Shem was a son of Noah and the nations descended from Shem are the Semites). When the two peoples clashed, the Sumerians gradually lost control over the city-states they had so brilliantly created and fell under the hegemony of the Akkadian kingdom, which was based in Akkad (Sumerian Agade). This great capital of the largest empire humans had ever seen up until that point that was later to become Babylon, which was the commercial and cultural center of the Middle East for almost two thousand years. In 2340 BC, the great Akkadian military leader, Sargon, conquered Sumer and built an Akkadian empire stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states and extending as far away as Lebanon. Sargon based his empire in the city of Akkad, which became the basis of the name of his people. But Sargon's ambitious empire lasted for only a blink of an eye in the long time spans of Mesopotamian history. In 2125 BC, the Sumerian city of Ur in southern Mesopotamia rose up in revolt, and the Akkadian empire fell before a renewal of Sumerian city-states. Mesopotamia is the suspected spot known as the "Garden of Eden." Ur of the Chaldees, and that's where Abraham came from, (that's just north of the traditional site of the Garden of Eden, about twenty-five miles northeast of Eridu, at present Mughair), was a great and famous Sumerian city, dating from this time. Predating the Babylonian by about 2,000 years, was Noah, who lived in Fara, 100 miles southeast of Babylon (from Bab-ili, meaning "Gate of God").
The early Assyrians, some of the earliest people there, were known to be warriors, so the first wars were fought there, and the land has been full of wars ever since.
The Assyrians were in the northern part of Mesopotamia and the Babylonians more in the middle and southern part.
Mesopotamian plain was called the Fertile Crescent. This region is known as the Cradle of Civilization; was the birthplace of the varied civilizations that moved us from prehistory to history. An advanced civilization flourished in this region long before that of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, for it was here in about 4000BC that the Sumerian culture flourished Map of Mesopotamia showing geographic features surrounding ancient Sumer (7KB).
The civilized life that emerged at Sumer was shaped by two conflicting factors: the unpredictability of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which at any time could unleash devastating floods that wiped out entire peoples, and the extreme richness of the river valleys, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil. Thus, while the river valleys of southern Mesopotamia attracted migrations of neighboring peoples and made possible, for the first time in history, the growing of surplus food, the volatility of the rivers necessitated a form of collective management to protect the marshy, low-lying land from flooding.
As surplus production increased and as collective management became more advanced, a process of urbanization evolved and Sumerian civilization took root.
The people of the Tigris and the Euphrates basin, the ancient Sumerians, using the fertile land and the abundant water supply of the area, developed sophisticated irrigation systems and created what was probably the first cereal agriculture as well as the earliest writing, cuneiform - a way of arranging impression stamped on clay by the wedge-like section of chopped-off reed stylus into wet clay.
Through writing, the Sumerians were able to pass on complex agricultural techniques to successive generations; this led to marked improvements in agricultural production. Writing evolved to keep track of property. Clay envelopes marked with the owner's rolled seal were used to hold tokens for goods, the tokens within recording a specific transaction. Later on, the envelope and tokens were discarded and symbols scratched into clay recorded transactions such as 2 bunches of wheat or 7 cows. As writing evolved, pictures gave way to lines pressed into clay with a wedge tip; this allowed a scribe to make many different types of strokes without changing his grip. By 3,000 BC, the script evolved into a full syllabic alphabet.
The commerce of the times is recorded in great depth. Double entry accounting practices were found to be a part of the records. This remarkable innovation has been used to this day, as a standard for record keeping.
It was the custom for all to pay for what they needed at a fair price. Royalty was not exception. The king may have had an edge on getting a "better deal", but it wasn't the law as it was in Egypt where the Pharaoh was the "living god" and as such, owned all things. It seems that everyone had the right to bargain fairly for his or her goods. Unlike their Egyptian neighbors, these people were believers in private property, and the kings were very much answerable to the citizens. In Egypt, all things, including the people and property, were owned by the pharaoh. Sumerians invented the wheel and the first plow in 3700 BC.
Sumerians developed a math system based on the numeral 60, which is the basis of time in the modern world. Sumerian society was "Matriarchal" and women had a highly respected place in society. Banking originated in Mesopotamia (Babylonia) out of the activities of temples and palaces, which provided safe places for the storage of valuables. Initially deposits of grain were accepted and later other goods including cattle, agricultural implements, and precious metals. Another important Sumerian legacy was the recording of literature.
Poetry and epic literature were produced. The most famous Sumerian epic and the one that has survived in the most nearly complete form is the epic of Gilgamesh. The story of Gilgamesh, who actually was king of the city-state of Uruk in approximately 2700 BC, is a moving story of the ruler's deep sorrow at the death of his friend Enkidu, and of his consequent search for immortality. Other central themes of the story are a devastating flood and the tenuous nature of man's existence, and ended by meeting a wise and ancient man who had survived a great flood by building an ark.
Land was cultivated for the first time, early calendars were used and the first written alphabet was invented here. Its bountiful land, fresh waters, and varying climate contributed to the creation of deep-rooted civilization that had fostered humanity from its affluent fountain since thousand of years.
Sumerian states were believed to be under the rule of a local god or goddess, and a bureaucratic system of the priesthood arose to oversee the ritualistic and complex religion. High Priests represented the gods on earth, one of their jobs being to discern the divine will. A favorite method of divination was reading sheep or goat entrails. The priests ruled from their ziggurats, high rising temples of sunbaked brick with outside staircases leading to the shrine on top. The Sumerian gods personified local elements and natural forces. The Sumerians worshiped anu, the supreme god of heaven, Enlil, god of water, and Ea, god of magic and creator of man. The Sumerians held the belief that a sacred ritual marriage between the ruler and Inanna, goddess of love and fertility brought rich harvests.
Eventually, the Sumerians would have to battle another peoples, the Akkadians, who migrated up from the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadians were a Semitic people, that is, they spoke a language drawn from a family of languages called Semitic languages; a Semitic languages include Hebrew, Arabic, Assyrian, and Babylonian (the term "Semite" is a modern designation taken from the Hebrew Scriptures; Shem was a son of Noah and the nations descended from Shem are the Semites). When the two peoples clashed, the Sumerians gradually lost control over the city-states they had so brilliantly created and fell under the hegemony of the Akkadian kingdom, which was based in Akkad (Sumerian Agade). This great capital of the largest empire humans had ever seen up until that point that was later to become Babylon, which was the commercial and cultural center of the Middle East for almost two thousand years. In 2340 BC, the great Akkadian military leader, Sargon, conquered Sumer and built an Akkadian empire stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states and extending as far away as Lebanon. Sargon based his empire in the city of Akkad, which became the basis of the name of his people. But Sargon's ambitious empire lasted for only a blink of an eye in the long time spans of Mesopotamian history. In 2125 BC, the Sumerian city of Ur in southern Mesopotamia rose up in revolt, and the Akkadian empire fell before a renewal of Sumerian city-states. Mesopotamia is the suspected spot known as the "Garden of Eden." Ur of the Chaldees, and that's where Abraham came from, (that's just north of the traditional site of the Garden of Eden, about twenty-five miles northeast of Eridu, at present Mughair), was a great and famous Sumerian city, dating from this time. Predating the Babylonian by about 2,000 years, was Noah, who lived in Fara, 100 miles southeast of Babylon (from Bab-ili, meaning "Gate of God").
The early Assyrians, some of the earliest people there, were known to be warriors, so the first wars were fought there, and the land has been full of wars ever since.
The Assyrians were in the northern part of Mesopotamia and the Babylonians more in the middle and southern part.
Saudi Arab History
Saudi Arabia traces its roots back to the earliest civilizations of the Arabian Peninsula. Over the centuries, the peninsula has played an important role in history as an ancient trade center and as the birthplace of Islam, one of the world’s major monotheistic religions.
Since King Abdulaziz Al-Saud established the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, its transformation has been astonishing.
In a few short decades, the Kingdom has turned itself from a desert nation to a modern, sophisticated state and a major player on the international stage.
Early History
The first concrete evidence of human presence in the Arabian Peninsula dates back 15,000 to 20,000 years. Bands of hunter-gatherers roamed the land, living off wild animals and plants.
As the European ice cap melted during the last Ice Age, some 15,000 years ago, the climate in the peninsula became dry. Vast plains once covered with lush grasslands gave way to scrubland and deserts, and wild animals vanished. River systems also disappeared, leaving in their wake the dry river beds (wadis) that are found in the peninsula today.
This climate change forced humans to move into the lush mountain valleys and oases. No longer able to survive as hunter-gatherers, they had to develop another means of survival. As a result, agriculture developed – first in Mesopotamia, then the Nile River Valley, and eventually spreading across the Middle East.
The development of agriculture brought other advances. Pottery allowed farmers to store food. Animals, including goats, cattle, sheep, horses and camels, were domesticated, and people abandoned hunting altogether. These advances made intensive farming possible. In turn, settlements became more permanent, leading to the foundations of what we call civilization – language, writing, political systems, art and architecture.
An Ancient Trade Center
Located between the two great centers of civilization, the Nile River Valley and Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula was the crossroads of the ancient world. Trade was crucial to the area’s development; caravan routes became trade arteries that made life possible in the sparsely populated peninsula.
The people of the peninsula developed a complex network of trade routes to transport agricultural goods highly sought after in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean Basin. These items included almonds from Taif, dates from the many oases, and aromatics such as frankincense and myrrh from the Tihama plain.
Spices were also important trade items. They were shipped across the Arabian Sea from India and then transported by caravan.
The huge caravans traveled from what is now Oman and Yemen, along the great trade routes running through Saudi Arabia’s Asir Province and then through Makkah and Madinah, eventually arriving at the urban centers of the north and west.
The people of the Arabian Peninsula remained largely untouched by the political turmoil in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the eastern Mediterranean. Their goods and services were in great demand regardless of which power was dominant at the moment – Babylon, Egypt, Persia, Greece or Rome. In addition, the peninsula’s great expanse of desert formed a natural barrier that protected it from invasion by powerful neighbors.
The Birth of Islam
Around the year 610, Muhammad, a native of the thriving commercial center of Makkah, received a message from God (in Arabic, Allah) through the Angel Gabriel. As more revelations bid him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, the Prophet Muhammad’s following grew.
In 622, learning of an assassination plot against him, the Prophet led his followers to the town of Yathrib, which was later named Madinat Al-Nabi (City of the Prophet) and now known simply as Madinah. This was the Hijrah, or migration, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
Within the next few years, several battles took place between the followers of the Prophet Muhammad and the pagans of Makkah. By 628, when Madinah was entirely in the hands of the Muslims, the Prophet had unified the tribes so successfully that he and his followers reentered Makkah without bloodshed.
The Islamic Empire
Less than 100 years after the birth of Islam, the Islamic Empire extended from Spain to parts of India and China. Although the political centers of power had moved out of the Arabian Peninsula, trade flourished in the area.
Also, a large number of pilgrims began regularly visiting the peninsula, with some settling in the two holy cities of Makkah and Madinah. These pilgrims facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures between the people of the peninsula and other civilizations of the Arab and Muslim worlds.
The emergence of Arabic as the language of international learning was another major factor in the cultural development of the Arabian Peninsula. The Muslim world became a center for learning and scientific advances during what is known as the “Golden Age.” Muslim scholars made major contributions in many fields, including medicine, biology, philosophy, astronomy, arts and literature. Many of the ideas and methods pioneered by Muslim scholars became the foundation of modern sciences.
The Islamic Empire thrived well into the 17th century, when it broke up into smaller Muslim kingdoms. The Arabian Peninsula gradually entered a period of relative isolation, although Makkah and Madinah remained the spiritual heart of the Islamic world and continued to attract pilgrims from many countries.
The First Saudi State
In the early 18th century, a Muslim scholar and reformer named Shaikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab began advocating a return to the original form of Islam. Abdul Wahhab was initially persecuted by local religious scholars and leaders who viewed his teachings as a threat to their power bases. He sought protection in the town of Diriyah, which was ruled by Muhammad bin Saud.
Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud formed an agreement to dedicate themselves to restoring the pure teachings of Islam to the Muslim community. In that spirit, bin Saud established the First Saudi State, which prospered under the spiritual guidance of bin Abdul Wahhab, known simply as the Shaikh.
By 1788, the Saudi State ruled over the entire central plateau known as the Najd. By the early 19th century, its rule extended to most of the Arabian Peninsula, including Makkah and Madinah.
The popularity and success of the Al-Saud rulers aroused the suspicion of the Ottoman Empire, the dominant power in the Middle East and North Africa at the time. In 1818, the Ottomans dispatched a large expeditionary force armed with modern artillery to the western region of Arabia. The Ottoman army besieged Diriyah, which by now had grown into one of the largest cities in the peninsula. Ottoman forces leveled the city with field guns and made it permanently uninhabitable by ruining the wells and uprooting date palms.
The Second Saudi State
By 1824, the Al-Saud family had regained political control of central Arabia. The Saudi ruler Turki bin Abdullah Al-Saud transferred his capital to Riyadh, some 20 miles south of Diriyah, and established the Second Saudi State. During his 11-year rule, Turki succeeded in retaking most of the lands lost to the Ottomans. As he expanded his rule, he took steps to ensure that his people enjoyed rights, and he saw to their well-being.
Under Turki and his son, Faisal, the Second Saudi State enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity, and trade and agriculture flourished. The calm was shattered in 1865 by a renewed Ottoman campaign to extend its Middle Eastern empire into the Arabian Peninsula. Ottoman armies captured parts of the Saudi State, which was ruled at the time by Faisal’s son, Abdulrahman. With the support of the Ottomans, the Al-Rashid family of Hail made a concerted effort to overthrow the Saudi State.
Faced with a much larger and better equipped army, Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al-Saud was forced to abandon his struggle in 1891. He sought refuge with the Bedouin tribes in the vast sand desert of eastern Arabia known as the Rub’ Al-Khali, or ‘Empty Quarter.’ From there, Abdulrahman and his family traveled to Kuwait, where they stayed until 1902. With him was his young son Abdulaziz, who was already making his mark as a natural leader and a fierce warrior for the cause of Islam.
The Modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The young Abdulaziz was determined to regain his patrimony from the Al-Rashid family, which had taken over Riyadh and established a governor and garrison there. In 1902, Abdulaziz, – accompanied by only 40 followers – staged a daring night march into Riyadh to retake the city garrison, known as the Masmak Fortress. This legendary event marks the beginning of the formation of the modern Saudi state.
After establishing Riyadh as his headquarters, Abdulaziz captured all of the Hijaz, including Makkah and Madinah, in 1924 to 1925. In the process, he united warring tribes into one nation.
On September 23, 1932, the country was named the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, an Islamic state with Arabic as its national language and the Holy Qur’an as its constitution.
King Abdulaziz (1932-1953)
The legendary King Abdulaziz was a remarkable leader of imagination and vision who set Saudi Arabia on the road to modernization. During his rule, King Abdulaziz started building the country’s infrastructure. He established roads and basic communications systems, introduced modern technology, and improved education, health care and agriculture.
Although King Abdulaziz never traveled beyond the Arab world, he was a highly sophisticated statesman. Foreign leaders and diplomats who met with him came away impressed by his integrity and honesty. He was famous for dispensing with diplomatic niceties in favor of frank and candid discussion. He was just as well known for keeping his promises, whether given to a simple Bedouin or to a world leader. These qualities enhanced his stature as a reliable and responsible leader dedicated to peace and justice.
King Saud (1953-1964)
Abdulaziz’ eldest son Saud acceded to the throne upon his father’s death in 1953. He continued King Abdulaziz’s legacy, creating the Council of Ministers and establishing the Ministries of Health, Education and Commerce. One of King Saud’s greatest successes was the development of education – under his rule many schools were established in the Kingdom, including its first institute of higher education, King Saud University, in 1957.
King Saud also made his mark globally. In 1957, he became the first Saudi monarch to visit the United States. In 1962 he sponsored an international Islamic conference that would become the Muslim World League, headquartered in Makkah.
King Faisal (1964-1975)
King Faisal bin Abdulaziz was a visionary innovator with a great respect for tradition. He initiated the first of a series of economic and social development plans that would transform Saudi Arabia’s infrastructure, especially industry, and set the Kingdom on a path of rapid growth. He also established the first public schools for girls.
In foreign policy, King Faisal showed a firm commitment to the Islamic world. He was a central force behind the establishment in Jeddah in 1971 of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC), a group of 57 Islamic countries that promotes Islamic unity and cooperation.
Throughout the turbulent period of the 1960s and 1970s, which included two Arab-Israeli wars and the oil crisis of 1973, King Faisal was a voice for moderation, peace and stability.
King Khalid (1975-1982)
Khalid bin Abdulaziz succeeded King Faisal in 1975. King Khalid also emphasized development, and his reign was marked by an almost explosive growth in the country’s physical infrastructure. It was a period of enormous wealth and prosperity for Saudi Arabia.
On the international stage, King Khalid was a prime mover in forming the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981, an organization that promotes economic and security cooperation among its six member countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.
King Fahd (1982-2005)
Under King Fahd bin Abdulaziz, who adopted the title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, Saudi Arabia continued its tremendous socioeconomic development and emerged as a leading political and economic force.
King Fahd was central to Saudi Arabia’s efforts to diversify its economy and promote private enterprise and investment. He restructured the Saudi government and approved the first nationwide municipal elections, which took place in 2005.
One of King Fahd’s greatest accomplishments in Saudi Arabia was a series of projects to expand the Kingdom’s facilities to accommodate the millions of pilgrims who come to the country each year. These projects involved major expansions of Islam’s two holiest sites, the Holy Mosque in Makkah and the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, as well as airports and ports.
In the international arena, King Fahd worked actively to resolve regional and global crises. These crises included the Arab-Palestinian conflict, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, the Lebanese civil war in addition to conflicts in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Somalia and Kashmir.
As Crown Prince in 1981, he proposed an eight-point plan to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict and give the Palestinians an independent state. The plan was considered one of the first attempts to find a just and lasting settlement that took into consideration the needs of both the Arabs and Israel. It was unanimously adopted by the Arab League at a summit in Fez, Morocco in 1982.
King Fahd also dedicated years of diplomacy to resolving the civil war in Lebanon. He hosted a meeting of Lebanese members of parliament in Taif, Saudi Arabia in 1989. The meeting resulted in a national reconciliation accord signed in Taif that ended the fighting and opened the way for reconstruction with help from Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.
Perhaps the greatest international crisis of King Fahd’s rule occurred when Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990. The King played a key role in putting together the international coalition that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.
King Fahd was also concerned with humanitarian issues. Under his rule, Saudi Arabia provided emergency humanitarian assistance to numerous countries, including Somalia, Bosnia and Afghanistan, as well as countries suffering from natural disasters, such as earthquakes (Turkey in 1999, Iran in 2003) and the tsunami that struck Southeast Asia in December 2004.
King Abdullah (2005 - )
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz acceded to the throne after the death of King Fahd on August 1, 2005.
King Abdullah was born in Riyadh in 1924, and received his early education at the royal court. Influenced by his father King Abdulaziz, he developed a profound respect for religion, history and Arab heritage. His years spent living in the desert with Bedouin tribes taught him their values of honor, simplicity, generosity and bravery, and instilled in him the desire to assist in the development of his people.
As Crown Prince, he traveled widely in the Kingdom and inaugurated a number of projects throughout the country. In 2005 he closely monitored the election process for the country’s municipal councils.
The Prince’s first official visit to the United States was in 1976 when he met with President Gerald Ford. Since then, he has made a number of visits to the United States, including his most recent on April 25, 2005 to President George W. Bush’s ranch in Crawford, Texas.
His international diplomacy reflects Saudi Arabia’s leadership role in defense of Arab and Islamic issues and for the achievement of world peace, stability and security. Peace in the Middle East and the plight of the Palestinians are of particular concern to King Abdullah. His proposal for a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace, presented at the Beirut Arab Summit in 2002, has been adopted by the League of Arab States and is known as the Arab Peace Initiative.
King Abdullah has been unwavering in his condemnation of terrorism. At the International Counterterrorism Conference in Riyadh in February, 2005, he called for greater international cooperation to fight this global problem.
Crown Prince Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz
His Royal Highness Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz was designated Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and appointed Deputy Prime Minister, by Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz on June 18, 2012, upon the death of Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz. Crown Prince Salman also serves as Minister of Defense.
Prince Salman was born in Riyadh on Dec. 31, 1935, and received his education at the Prince’s School in Riyadh. He served as Deputy Governor of Riyadh from March 1954 to April 1955, and Governor of Riyadh from April 1955 to December 1960 and again from February 1963 to Nov. 5, 2011, when he was appointed Minister of Defense.
Since 1956, Prince Salman has chaired various humanitarian and service committees that provide relief from natural and man-made disasters. For his humanitarian services, he has been awarded many medals and decorations, including awards from Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Morocco, Palestine, the Philippines, Senegal, the United Nations, Yemen, and the King Abdulaziz Medal - First Class.
He is a recipient of several honorary degrees and academic awards, including an honorary doctorate from the Islamic University of Madinah, the Prince Salman academic award, and the Kant Medal by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities in appreciation of his contributions to the field of science.
During official visits to the United States in April 2012, Prince Salman met with President Barack Obama and a number of U.S. officials.
Since King Abdulaziz Al-Saud established the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932, its transformation has been astonishing.
In a few short decades, the Kingdom has turned itself from a desert nation to a modern, sophisticated state and a major player on the international stage.
Early History
The first concrete evidence of human presence in the Arabian Peninsula dates back 15,000 to 20,000 years. Bands of hunter-gatherers roamed the land, living off wild animals and plants.
As the European ice cap melted during the last Ice Age, some 15,000 years ago, the climate in the peninsula became dry. Vast plains once covered with lush grasslands gave way to scrubland and deserts, and wild animals vanished. River systems also disappeared, leaving in their wake the dry river beds (wadis) that are found in the peninsula today.
This climate change forced humans to move into the lush mountain valleys and oases. No longer able to survive as hunter-gatherers, they had to develop another means of survival. As a result, agriculture developed – first in Mesopotamia, then the Nile River Valley, and eventually spreading across the Middle East.
The development of agriculture brought other advances. Pottery allowed farmers to store food. Animals, including goats, cattle, sheep, horses and camels, were domesticated, and people abandoned hunting altogether. These advances made intensive farming possible. In turn, settlements became more permanent, leading to the foundations of what we call civilization – language, writing, political systems, art and architecture.
An Ancient Trade Center
Located between the two great centers of civilization, the Nile River Valley and Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula was the crossroads of the ancient world. Trade was crucial to the area’s development; caravan routes became trade arteries that made life possible in the sparsely populated peninsula.
The people of the peninsula developed a complex network of trade routes to transport agricultural goods highly sought after in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the Mediterranean Basin. These items included almonds from Taif, dates from the many oases, and aromatics such as frankincense and myrrh from the Tihama plain.
Spices were also important trade items. They were shipped across the Arabian Sea from India and then transported by caravan.
The huge caravans traveled from what is now Oman and Yemen, along the great trade routes running through Saudi Arabia’s Asir Province and then through Makkah and Madinah, eventually arriving at the urban centers of the north and west.
The people of the Arabian Peninsula remained largely untouched by the political turmoil in Mesopotamia, the Nile Valley and the eastern Mediterranean. Their goods and services were in great demand regardless of which power was dominant at the moment – Babylon, Egypt, Persia, Greece or Rome. In addition, the peninsula’s great expanse of desert formed a natural barrier that protected it from invasion by powerful neighbors.
The Birth of Islam
Around the year 610, Muhammad, a native of the thriving commercial center of Makkah, received a message from God (in Arabic, Allah) through the Angel Gabriel. As more revelations bid him to proclaim the oneness of God universally, the Prophet Muhammad’s following grew.
In 622, learning of an assassination plot against him, the Prophet led his followers to the town of Yathrib, which was later named Madinat Al-Nabi (City of the Prophet) and now known simply as Madinah. This was the Hijrah, or migration, which marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
Within the next few years, several battles took place between the followers of the Prophet Muhammad and the pagans of Makkah. By 628, when Madinah was entirely in the hands of the Muslims, the Prophet had unified the tribes so successfully that he and his followers reentered Makkah without bloodshed.
The Islamic Empire
Less than 100 years after the birth of Islam, the Islamic Empire extended from Spain to parts of India and China. Although the political centers of power had moved out of the Arabian Peninsula, trade flourished in the area.
Also, a large number of pilgrims began regularly visiting the peninsula, with some settling in the two holy cities of Makkah and Madinah. These pilgrims facilitated the exchange of ideas and cultures between the people of the peninsula and other civilizations of the Arab and Muslim worlds.
The emergence of Arabic as the language of international learning was another major factor in the cultural development of the Arabian Peninsula. The Muslim world became a center for learning and scientific advances during what is known as the “Golden Age.” Muslim scholars made major contributions in many fields, including medicine, biology, philosophy, astronomy, arts and literature. Many of the ideas and methods pioneered by Muslim scholars became the foundation of modern sciences.
The Islamic Empire thrived well into the 17th century, when it broke up into smaller Muslim kingdoms. The Arabian Peninsula gradually entered a period of relative isolation, although Makkah and Madinah remained the spiritual heart of the Islamic world and continued to attract pilgrims from many countries.
The First Saudi State
In the early 18th century, a Muslim scholar and reformer named Shaikh Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab began advocating a return to the original form of Islam. Abdul Wahhab was initially persecuted by local religious scholars and leaders who viewed his teachings as a threat to their power bases. He sought protection in the town of Diriyah, which was ruled by Muhammad bin Saud.
Muhammad bin Abdul Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud formed an agreement to dedicate themselves to restoring the pure teachings of Islam to the Muslim community. In that spirit, bin Saud established the First Saudi State, which prospered under the spiritual guidance of bin Abdul Wahhab, known simply as the Shaikh.
By 1788, the Saudi State ruled over the entire central plateau known as the Najd. By the early 19th century, its rule extended to most of the Arabian Peninsula, including Makkah and Madinah.
The popularity and success of the Al-Saud rulers aroused the suspicion of the Ottoman Empire, the dominant power in the Middle East and North Africa at the time. In 1818, the Ottomans dispatched a large expeditionary force armed with modern artillery to the western region of Arabia. The Ottoman army besieged Diriyah, which by now had grown into one of the largest cities in the peninsula. Ottoman forces leveled the city with field guns and made it permanently uninhabitable by ruining the wells and uprooting date palms.
The Second Saudi State
By 1824, the Al-Saud family had regained political control of central Arabia. The Saudi ruler Turki bin Abdullah Al-Saud transferred his capital to Riyadh, some 20 miles south of Diriyah, and established the Second Saudi State. During his 11-year rule, Turki succeeded in retaking most of the lands lost to the Ottomans. As he expanded his rule, he took steps to ensure that his people enjoyed rights, and he saw to their well-being.
Under Turki and his son, Faisal, the Second Saudi State enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity, and trade and agriculture flourished. The calm was shattered in 1865 by a renewed Ottoman campaign to extend its Middle Eastern empire into the Arabian Peninsula. Ottoman armies captured parts of the Saudi State, which was ruled at the time by Faisal’s son, Abdulrahman. With the support of the Ottomans, the Al-Rashid family of Hail made a concerted effort to overthrow the Saudi State.
Faced with a much larger and better equipped army, Abdulrahman bin Faisal Al-Saud was forced to abandon his struggle in 1891. He sought refuge with the Bedouin tribes in the vast sand desert of eastern Arabia known as the Rub’ Al-Khali, or ‘Empty Quarter.’ From there, Abdulrahman and his family traveled to Kuwait, where they stayed until 1902. With him was his young son Abdulaziz, who was already making his mark as a natural leader and a fierce warrior for the cause of Islam.
The Modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The young Abdulaziz was determined to regain his patrimony from the Al-Rashid family, which had taken over Riyadh and established a governor and garrison there. In 1902, Abdulaziz, – accompanied by only 40 followers – staged a daring night march into Riyadh to retake the city garrison, known as the Masmak Fortress. This legendary event marks the beginning of the formation of the modern Saudi state.
After establishing Riyadh as his headquarters, Abdulaziz captured all of the Hijaz, including Makkah and Madinah, in 1924 to 1925. In the process, he united warring tribes into one nation.
On September 23, 1932, the country was named the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, an Islamic state with Arabic as its national language and the Holy Qur’an as its constitution.
King Abdulaziz (1932-1953)
The legendary King Abdulaziz was a remarkable leader of imagination and vision who set Saudi Arabia on the road to modernization. During his rule, King Abdulaziz started building the country’s infrastructure. He established roads and basic communications systems, introduced modern technology, and improved education, health care and agriculture.
Although King Abdulaziz never traveled beyond the Arab world, he was a highly sophisticated statesman. Foreign leaders and diplomats who met with him came away impressed by his integrity and honesty. He was famous for dispensing with diplomatic niceties in favor of frank and candid discussion. He was just as well known for keeping his promises, whether given to a simple Bedouin or to a world leader. These qualities enhanced his stature as a reliable and responsible leader dedicated to peace and justice.
King Saud (1953-1964)
Abdulaziz’ eldest son Saud acceded to the throne upon his father’s death in 1953. He continued King Abdulaziz’s legacy, creating the Council of Ministers and establishing the Ministries of Health, Education and Commerce. One of King Saud’s greatest successes was the development of education – under his rule many schools were established in the Kingdom, including its first institute of higher education, King Saud University, in 1957.
King Saud also made his mark globally. In 1957, he became the first Saudi monarch to visit the United States. In 1962 he sponsored an international Islamic conference that would become the Muslim World League, headquartered in Makkah.
King Faisal (1964-1975)
King Faisal bin Abdulaziz was a visionary innovator with a great respect for tradition. He initiated the first of a series of economic and social development plans that would transform Saudi Arabia’s infrastructure, especially industry, and set the Kingdom on a path of rapid growth. He also established the first public schools for girls.
In foreign policy, King Faisal showed a firm commitment to the Islamic world. He was a central force behind the establishment in Jeddah in 1971 of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation (OIC), a group of 57 Islamic countries that promotes Islamic unity and cooperation.
Throughout the turbulent period of the 1960s and 1970s, which included two Arab-Israeli wars and the oil crisis of 1973, King Faisal was a voice for moderation, peace and stability.
King Khalid (1975-1982)
Khalid bin Abdulaziz succeeded King Faisal in 1975. King Khalid also emphasized development, and his reign was marked by an almost explosive growth in the country’s physical infrastructure. It was a period of enormous wealth and prosperity for Saudi Arabia.
On the international stage, King Khalid was a prime mover in forming the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981, an organization that promotes economic and security cooperation among its six member countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia.
King Fahd (1982-2005)
Under King Fahd bin Abdulaziz, who adopted the title Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, Saudi Arabia continued its tremendous socioeconomic development and emerged as a leading political and economic force.
King Fahd was central to Saudi Arabia’s efforts to diversify its economy and promote private enterprise and investment. He restructured the Saudi government and approved the first nationwide municipal elections, which took place in 2005.
One of King Fahd’s greatest accomplishments in Saudi Arabia was a series of projects to expand the Kingdom’s facilities to accommodate the millions of pilgrims who come to the country each year. These projects involved major expansions of Islam’s two holiest sites, the Holy Mosque in Makkah and the Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah, as well as airports and ports.
In the international arena, King Fahd worked actively to resolve regional and global crises. These crises included the Arab-Palestinian conflict, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, the Lebanese civil war in addition to conflicts in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Kosovo, Chechnya, Afghanistan, Somalia and Kashmir.
As Crown Prince in 1981, he proposed an eight-point plan to resolve the Arab-Israeli conflict and give the Palestinians an independent state. The plan was considered one of the first attempts to find a just and lasting settlement that took into consideration the needs of both the Arabs and Israel. It was unanimously adopted by the Arab League at a summit in Fez, Morocco in 1982.
King Fahd also dedicated years of diplomacy to resolving the civil war in Lebanon. He hosted a meeting of Lebanese members of parliament in Taif, Saudi Arabia in 1989. The meeting resulted in a national reconciliation accord signed in Taif that ended the fighting and opened the way for reconstruction with help from Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries.
Perhaps the greatest international crisis of King Fahd’s rule occurred when Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990. The King played a key role in putting together the international coalition that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait.
King Fahd was also concerned with humanitarian issues. Under his rule, Saudi Arabia provided emergency humanitarian assistance to numerous countries, including Somalia, Bosnia and Afghanistan, as well as countries suffering from natural disasters, such as earthquakes (Turkey in 1999, Iran in 2003) and the tsunami that struck Southeast Asia in December 2004.
King Abdullah (2005 - )
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz acceded to the throne after the death of King Fahd on August 1, 2005.
King Abdullah was born in Riyadh in 1924, and received his early education at the royal court. Influenced by his father King Abdulaziz, he developed a profound respect for religion, history and Arab heritage. His years spent living in the desert with Bedouin tribes taught him their values of honor, simplicity, generosity and bravery, and instilled in him the desire to assist in the development of his people.
As Crown Prince, he traveled widely in the Kingdom and inaugurated a number of projects throughout the country. In 2005 he closely monitored the election process for the country’s municipal councils.
The Prince’s first official visit to the United States was in 1976 when he met with President Gerald Ford. Since then, he has made a number of visits to the United States, including his most recent on April 25, 2005 to President George W. Bush’s ranch in Crawford, Texas.
His international diplomacy reflects Saudi Arabia’s leadership role in defense of Arab and Islamic issues and for the achievement of world peace, stability and security. Peace in the Middle East and the plight of the Palestinians are of particular concern to King Abdullah. His proposal for a comprehensive Arab-Israeli peace, presented at the Beirut Arab Summit in 2002, has been adopted by the League of Arab States and is known as the Arab Peace Initiative.
King Abdullah has been unwavering in his condemnation of terrorism. At the International Counterterrorism Conference in Riyadh in February, 2005, he called for greater international cooperation to fight this global problem.
Crown Prince Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz
His Royal Highness Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz was designated Crown Prince of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and appointed Deputy Prime Minister, by Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz on June 18, 2012, upon the death of Crown Prince Nayef bin Abdulaziz. Crown Prince Salman also serves as Minister of Defense.
Prince Salman was born in Riyadh on Dec. 31, 1935, and received his education at the Prince’s School in Riyadh. He served as Deputy Governor of Riyadh from March 1954 to April 1955, and Governor of Riyadh from April 1955 to December 1960 and again from February 1963 to Nov. 5, 2011, when he was appointed Minister of Defense.
Since 1956, Prince Salman has chaired various humanitarian and service committees that provide relief from natural and man-made disasters. For his humanitarian services, he has been awarded many medals and decorations, including awards from Bahrain, Bosnia and Herzegovina, France, Morocco, Palestine, the Philippines, Senegal, the United Nations, Yemen, and the King Abdulaziz Medal - First Class.
He is a recipient of several honorary degrees and academic awards, including an honorary doctorate from the Islamic University of Madinah, the Prince Salman academic award, and the Kant Medal by the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities in appreciation of his contributions to the field of science.
During official visits to the United States in April 2012, Prince Salman met with President Barack Obama and a number of U.S. officials.
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